Intestinal microbiota via NLRP3 inflammasome dependent neuronal pyroptosis mediates anxiety-like behaviour in mice exposed to 3.5 GHz radiofrequency radiation.

The rapid development of 5G communication technology has increased public concern about the potential adverse effects on human health. Till now, the impacts of radiofrequency radiation (RFR) from 5G communication on the central nervous system and gut-brain axis are still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of 3.5 GHz (a frequency commonly used in 5G communication) RFR on neurobehavior, gut microbiota, and gut-brain axis metabolites in mice. The results showed that exposure to 3.5 GHz RFR at 50 W/m2 for 1 h over 35 d induced anxiety-like behaviour in mice, accompanied by NLRP3-dependent neuronal pyroptosis in CA3 region of the dorsal hippocampus. In addition, the microbial composition was widely divergent between the sham and RFR groups. 3.5 GHz RFR also caused changes in metabolites of feces, serum, and brain. The differential metabolites were mainly enriched in glycerophospholipid metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis. Further correlation analysis showed that gut microbiota dysbiosis was associated with differential metabolites. Based on the above results, we speculate that dysfunctional intestinal flora and metabolites may be involved in RFR-induced anxiety-like behaviour in mice through neuronal pyroptosis in the brain. The findings provide novel insights into the mechanism of 5G RFR-induced neurotoxicity.

Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure on male fertility: A systematic review of experimental studies on non-human mammals and human sperm in vitro.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization is coordinating an international project aimed at systematically reviewing the evidence regarding the association between radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure and adverse health effects. Reproductive health outcomes have been identified among the priority topics to be addressed. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of RF-EMF exposure on male fertility of experimental mammals and on human sperm exposed in vitro. METHODS: Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus and EMF Portal) were last searched on September 17, 2022. Two independent reviewers screened the studies, which were considered eligible if met the following criteria: 1) Peer-reviewed publications of sham controlled experimental studies, 2) Non-human male mammals exposed at any stage of development or human sperm exposed in vitro, 3) RF-EMF exposure within the frequency range of 100 kHz-300 GHz, including electromagnetic pulses (EMP), 4) one of the following indicators of reproductive system impairment:Two reviewers extracted study characteristics and outcome data. We assessed risk of bias (RoB) using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) guidelines. We categorized studies into 3 levels of overall RoB: low, some or high concern. We pooled study results in a random effects meta-analysis comparing average exposure to no-exposure and in a dose-response meta-analysis using all exposure doses. For experimental animal studies, we conducted subgroup analyses for species, Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) and temperature increase. We grouped studies on human sperm exposed in vitro by the fertility status of sample donors and SAR. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach after excluding studies that were rated as "high concern" for RoB. RESULTS: One-hundred and seventeen papers on animal studies and 10 papers on human sperm exposed in vitro were included in this review. Only few studies were rated as "low concern" because most studies were at RoB for exposure and/or outcome assessment. Subgrouping the experimental animal studies by species, SAR, and temperature increase partly accounted for the heterogeneity of individual studies in about one third of the meta-analyses. In no case was it possible to conduct a subgroup analysis of the few human sperm in vitro studies because there were always 1 or more groups including less than 3 studies. Among all the considered endpoints, the meta-analyses of animal studies provided evidence of adverse effects of RF-EMF exposure in all cases but the rate of infertile males and the size of the sired litters. The assessment of certainty according to the GRADE methodology assigned a moderate certainty to the reduction of pregnancy rate and to the evidence of no-effect on litter size, a low certainty to the reduction of sperm count, and a very low certainty to all the other meta-analysis results. Studies on human sperm exposed in vitro indicated a small detrimental effect of RF-EMF exposure on vitality and no-effect on DNA/chromatin alterations. According to GRADE, a very low certainty was attributed to these results. The few studies that used EMP exposure did not show effects on the outcomes. A low to very low certainty was attributed to these results. DISCUSSION: Many of the studies examined suffered of severe limitations that led to the attribution of uncertainty to the results of the meta-analyses and did not allow to draw firm conclusions on most of the endpoints. Nevertheless, the associations between RF-EMF exposure and decrease of pregnancy rate and sperm count, to which moderate and low certainty were attributed, are not negligible, also in view of the indications that in Western countries human male fertility potential seems to be progressively declining. It was beyond the scope of our systematic review to determine the shape of the dose-response relationship or to identify a minimum effective exposure level. The subgroup and the dose-response fitting analyses did not show a consistent relationship between the exposure levels and the observed effects. Notably, most studies evaluated RF-EMF exposure levels that were higher than the levels to which human populations are typically exposed, and the limits set in international guidelines. For these reasons we cannot provide suggestions to confirm or reconsider current human exposure limits. Considering the outcomes of this systematic review and taking into account the limitations found in several of the studies, we suggest that further investigations with better characterization of exposure and dosimetry including several exposure levels and blinded outcome assessment were conducted. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: Protocols for the systematic reviews of animal studies and of human sperm in vitro studies were published in Pacchierotti et al., 2021. The former was also registered in PROSPERO (CRD42021227729 https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID = 227729) and the latter in Open Science Framework (OSF Registration DOI https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7MUS3).

5G NR launching in Greece: Preliminary in situ and monitoring network measurements of electromagnetic fields exposure levels at rooftops.

In Greece, 5G New Radio (NR) has started launching in the end of 2020, at the 3400-3800 MHz (FR1) frequency band. Focusing on 117 Base Stations (BSs) which were already equipped with 5G NR antennas, in situ broadband and frequency selective measurements have been conducted at minimum three points of interest, at adjacent rooftops (when accessible). The points have been selected according to the sweeping method and the electric field strength (E) value has been stored on the selected worst-case scenario point. Spectrum analysis was conducted in the FR1, for the allocated spectrum that corresponds to each mobile communication provider, in order to get preliminary results concerning the contribution of the 5G NR emissions in the general public exposure levels. The vast majority of the in situ measurements has been conducted in urban environments from the beginning of 2021 until the mid of 2022, since in Greece 5G NR services launching started from the big cities. Additionally, a 5G NR BS, installed in a suburban environment (in the city of Kalamata) is thoroughly investigated during its pilot and regular operation, based on broadband and frequency selective measurements data derived by the National Observatory of Electromagnetic Fields (NOEF) monitoring sensor network. In situ measurement data within the 5G NR frequency range are verified via the NOEF's output. The 5G NR contribution to the total E-field levels is assessed in time, from pilot to regular operation of the BS. In all cases, compliance with the reference levels for general public exposure is affirmed.

Evaluating radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in confined spaces: a systematic review of recent studies and future directions.

This study reviews recent research on Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure in confined environments, focusing on methodologies and parameters. Studies typically evaluate RF-EMF exposure using an electric field and specific absorption rate but fail to consider temperature rise in the tissues in confined environments. The study highlights the investigation of RF-EMF exposure in subterranean environments such as subways, tunnels and mines. Future research should evaluate the exposure of communication devices in such environments, considering the surrounding environment. Such studies will aid in understanding the risks and developing effective mitigation strategies to protect workers and the general public.

Electromagnetic exposure analysis of the subway passenger under the civil communication system radiation.

In order to assess the electromagnetic exposure safety of passengers under the civil communication system of the subway, the radio-frequency (RF) electromagnetic environment of subway carriage is established by using COMSOL Multiphysics software, it includes a 1-1/4 " leaky coaxial cable (LCX1) and a 1-5/8" leaky coaxial cable (LCX2), which are designed to be the exposure sources, and twelve passengers at different position. The electromagnetic environment model has been verified through field measurement. The exposure dose distribution of twelve passengers is compared and analyzed, when LCX1 and LCX2 works respectively. The simulated results show that, to compare with LCX2, the electromagnetic dose absorbed by the passengers is reduced by 9.19% and 22.50% at 2100 MHz and 2600 MHz respectively. The specific absorption rate (SAR) of passengers obtains the maximum value of 1.91×10-4 W/Kg and the temperature rise to 0.214 K when the LCX1 works at 3400 MHz. By comparing with the public exposure limitation of the International Commission of Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), it demonstrates the electromagnetic exposure safety of the passengers under the civil communication system. More importantly, the proposed LCX1 not only could add the 5G signal cover but also lower the SAR absorbed by the passengers, which indicates that the public electromagnetic exposure dose could be reduced by adjusting the radiation performances of exposure source, which provide a new way for electromagnetic protecting.

Radiofrequency identification tracking system (RFID) significantly improves blood bank inventory management and decreases staff work effort.

BACKGROUND: Before implementation of the radio frequency identification (RFID) system, there was a high loss rate of 4.0%-4.3% of red blood cell (RBC) units every year expiring on the shelf in our transfusion service laboratory. We introduced RFID technology to improve inventory management and the burden of work on the staff. The goal of this study was to evaluate the impact of RFID technology on the inventory management of RBC units and the staff workload in a transfusion service laboratory. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Using an RFID system involves encoding RBC units with an RFID tag capturing information such as donor identification number, product code, blood type, expiration date, product volume, and negative antigen(s). Tag information is collected through retrofitted storage shelves linked to the RFID server. The study analyzed RBC usage by unit and by volume (mL) and staff work effort to carry out inventory management tasks before and after the implementation of the RFID system. RESULTS: Implementation of the RFID technology reduced the loss, or discard, of RBC units to less than 1% annually (a statistically significant change, p < .001). The RFID computer dashboard provides a constant visual update of the inventory, allowing technologists to have accurate product counts and reducing their work burden. DISCUSSION: Implementation of RFID technology substantially reduced RBC product loss, improved inventory management, and lessened staff work burden.

The impact of radiofrequency exposure on Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) development.

INTRODUCTION: Wireless communication connects billions of people worldwide, relying on radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). Generally, fifth-generation (5G) networks shift RF carriers to higher frequencies. Although radio, cell phones, and television have benefitted humans for decades, higher carrier frequencies can present potential health risks. Insects closely associated with humans (such as mosquitoes) can undergo increased RF absorption and dielectric heating. This process inadvertently impacts the insects' behaviour, morphology, and physiology, which can influence their spread. Therefore, this study examined the impact of RF exposure on Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, which are prevalent in indoor environments with higher RF exposure risk. The morphologies of Ae. aegypti eggs and their developments into Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were investigated. METHODS: A total of 30 eggs were exposed to RF radiation at three frequencies: baseline, 900 MHz, and 18 GHz. Each frequency was tested in triplicate. Several parameters were assessed through daily observations in an insectarium, including hatching responses, development times, larval numbers, and pupation periods until the emergence of adult insects. RESULTS: This study revealed that the hatching rate for the 900 MHz group was the highest (79 ± 10.54%) compared to other exposures (p = 0.87). The adult emergence rate for the 900 MHz group was also the lowest at 33 ± 2.77%. A significant difference between the groups was demonstrated in the statistical analysis (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: This work highlighted the morphology sensitivity of Ae. aegypti eggs and their developments in the aquatic phase to RF radiation, potentially altering their life cycle.

How to improve IARC's RF-EMF cancer hazard communication.

A crucial aspect of IARC's evaluation of the relative carcinogenicity of agents is the communication of its conclusions. The present paper addressed the experimental risk perception literature pertaining to IARC's radiofrequency electromagnetic field evaluation communication, and derived specific recommendations for improving it.

Development of a Helmet-Shape Dual-Channel RF coil for brain imaging at 54 mT using inverse boundary element method.

Very-low field (VLF) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers advantages in term of size, weight, cost, and the absence of robust shielding requirements. However, it encounters challenges in maintaining a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to low magnetic fields (below 100 mT). Developing a close-fitting radio frequency (RF) receive coil is crucial to improve the SNR. In this study, we devised and optimized a helmet-shaped dual-channel RF receive coil tailored for brain imaging at a magnetic field strength of 54 mT (2.32 MHz). The methodology integrates the inverse boundary element method (IBEM) to formulate initial coil structures and wiring patterns, followed by optimization through introducing regularization terms. This approach frames the design process as an inverse problem, ensuring a close fit to the head contour. Combining theoretical optimization with physical measurements of the coil's AC resistance, we identified the optimal loop count for both axial and radial coils as nine and eight loops, respectively. The effectiveness of the designed dual-channel coil was verified through the imaging of a CuSO4 phantom and a healthy volunteer's brain. Notably, the in-vivo images exhibited an approximate 16-25 % increase in SNR with poorer B1 homogeneity compared to those obtained using single-channel coils. The high-quality images achieved by T1, T2-weighted, and fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery (FLAIR) protocols enhance the diagnostic potential of VLF MRI, particularly in cases of cerebral stroke and trauma patients. This study underscores the adaptability of the design methodology for the customization of RF coil structures in alignment with individual imaging requirements.

Citizen science approach to assessing patient perception of MRI with flexible radiofrequency coils.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a major medical imaging modality, which is non-invasive and provides unique soft tissue contrast without ionizing radiation. The successful completion of MRI exams critically depends on patient compliance, and, thus patient comfort. The design, appearance and usability of local MRI radiofrequency (RF) coils potentially influences the patients' perception of the exam. However, systematic investigations and empirical evidence for these aspects are missing. A questionnaire specifically evaluating the impact of RF coils on patient comfort in MRI would be a valuable addition to clinical studies comparing the performance of novel flexible RF coils with standard rigid coils. This paper describes the development of such a questionnaire in the scope of a citizen science (CS) initiative conducted with a group of students at the upper secondary school level. In this work, the CS initiative is presented in the format of a case report and its impact on scientific projects and the students' education is outlined. The resulting questionnaire is made available in German and English so as to be directly applicable by researchers working on the clinical evaluation of novel RF coils or the comfort evaluation of specific hardware setups in general.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Preterm Infant: A Systematic Review on Clinical Procedure Safety.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there is no evidence that MRI produces harmful effects on premature newborns, as well as short-term and long-term safety issues regarding radiofrequency fields and loud acoustic environment, while the examination that is being performed has not been clearly investigated. MRI of the brain conducted on preterm infants should be part of the diagnostic workup, when necessary. This article is intended to evaluate the short-term safety of MRI performed in preterm infants, when required, by analyzing all vital parameters available before, during, and after the MRI procedures. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of the literature on electronic medical databases (PubMed and ClinicalTrials.gov) following the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We included all preterm infants who underwent MRI whose clinical, hemodynamic, and respiratory parameters were reported. The quality of the included articles was assessed using QUADAS-2 (Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) tool. RESULTS: Six studies were included with a total of 311 preterm infants. No severe adverse event, such as death, occurred during MRI procedures. Vital signs remained stable in about two-thirds of all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Given the general clinical safety of MRI, we suggest it as a tool to be used in preterm infants in Neonatal Intensive Care Units, when necessary. We further suggest the development of standard protocols to guide the use of MRI in preterm infants to maximize the clinical safety of the procedure.

Impact of MRI RF coil design on the RF-induced heating of medical implants: fixedB1+rmsexposure versus normal operating mode.

A direct comparison of the impact of RF coil design under specific absorption rate andB1+rmslimitations are investigated and quantified using RF coils of different geometries and topologies at 64 MHz and 128 MHz. The RF-inducedin vivoelectric field and power deposition of a 50 cm long pacemaker and 55 cm long deep brain stimulator (DBS) are evaluated within two anatomical models exposed with these RF coils. The associated uncertainty is quantified and analyzed under a fixedB1+rmsincident and normal operating mode. For a fixedB1+rmsincident, thein vivoincident field shows a much higher uncertainty (>5.6 dB) to the RF coil diameter compared to other design parameters (e.g. <2.2 dB for coil length and topology), while the associated uncertainty reduced greatly (e.g. <1.5 dB) under normal operating mode exposure. Similar uncertainties are observed in the power deposition near the pacemaker and DBS electrode. Compared to the normal operating mode, applying a fixedB1+rmsfield to the untested implant will lead to a large variation in the induced incident and power deposition of the implant, as a result, a larger safe margin when different coil designs (e.g. coil diameter) are considered.

Twisted pair transmission line coil - a flexible, self-decoupled and robust element for 7 T MRI.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluates the performance of a twisted pair transmission line coil as a transceive element for 7 T MRI in terms of physical flexibility, robustness to shape deformations, and interelement decoupling. METHODS: Each coil element was created by shaping a twisted pair of wires into a circle. One wire was interrupted at the top, while the other was interrupted at the bottom, and connected to the matching circuit. Electromagnetic simulations were conducted to determine the optimal number of twists per length (in terms of B1+ field efficiency, SAR efficiency, sensitivity to elongation, and interelement decoupling properties) and for investigating the fundamental operational principle of the coil through fields streamline visualisation. A comparison between the twisted pair coil and a conventional loop coil in terms of B1+ fields, maxSAR10g, and stability of S11 when the coil was deformed was performed. Experimentally measured interelement coupling between individual elements of multichannel arrays was also investigated. RESULTS: Increasing the number of twists per length resulted in a more physically robust coil. Poynting vector streamline visualisation showed that the twisted pair coil concentrated most of the energy in the near field. The twisted pair coil exhibited comparable B1+ fields and improved maxSAR10g to the conventional coil but demonstrated exceptional stability with respect to coil deformation and a strong self-decoupling nature when placed in an array configuration. DISCUSSION: The findings highlight the robustness of the twisted pair coil, showcasing its stability under shape variations. This coil holds great potential as a flexible RF coil for various imaging applications using multiple-element arrays, benefiting from its inherent decoupling.

Radiofrequency thermocoagulation under neuromonitoring guidance and general anesthesia for treatment of refractory trigeminal neuralgia.

OBJECTIVE: Radiofrequency thermocoagulation (RFT) for refractory trigeminal neuralgia is usually performed in awake patients to localize the involved trigeminal branches. It is often a painful experience. Here, we present RFT under neuromonitoring guidance and general anesthesia. METHOD: Stimulation of trigeminal branches at the foramen ovale with the tip of the RFT cannula is performed under short general anesthesia. Antidromic sensory-evoked potentials (aSEP) are recorded from the 3 trigeminal branches. The cannula is repositioned until the desired branch can be stimulated and lesioned. CONCLUSION: aSEP enable accurate localization of involved trigeminal branches during RFT and allow performing the procedure under general anesthesia.

Histological evaluation of monopolar and bipolar radiofrequency microneedling treatment in a porcine model.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Fractional radiofrequency microneedling (FRM) is widely used as an option for skin rejuvenation, however there is a lack of histological evidence for the various energy delivery systems available. The objective was to assess thermal denaturation of tissue and the wound healing response in monopolar mode versus bipolar mode. Histological analysis was performed to demonstrate the efficacy of automatic impedance feedback system in monopolar mode. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: In this study, the acute thermal effects caused by monopolar FRM treatment to the dorsal skin of pigs were assessed histologically by hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) staining. Then, one session of either monopolar or bipolar FRM was used to treat one or the other side of the pig using varying power levels and pulse widths. The acute and chronic tissue reactions were assessed using H&E, immunofluorescence, and western blot analysis at 0, 14, 30, and 90 days after treatment. The efficacy of the impedance feedback system was also monitored histologically. RESULTS: High-energy FRM treatment produced tissue loss and necrosis. The power level and pulse duration significantly affected the coagulation amount. Histopathology at 0, 14, 30, and 90 days showed that the skin tissue reaction was more pronounced for bipolar compared to monopolar FRM. Immunofluorescence showed the expression of TGF-ß, Ki67, MMP3, and elastin increased dramatically with both modes, but were higher in the bipolar FRM treated side. The automatic impedance feedback system could effectively adjust the output energy. CONCLUSIONS: We found that bipolar FRM produced greater thermal effects, more collagen coagulation, and more pronounced molecular changes compared with monopolar mode in a porcine animal model.

Personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A comparative analysis of international, national, and regional guidelines.

A worldwide overview and analysis for the existing limits of human exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) is given in this paper. These reference levels have been established by different national and even regional governments, which can be based on the guidelines provided by the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and even in the United States of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), as well as, are based on the so-called precautionary principle. Explicit reference is made to the exposure limits adopted in countries or regions, such as Canada, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, China, Russia, France, and regions of Belgium (Brussels, Flanders, Wallonia), where the limits are much lower than the international standards. The limits are compared to a selected set of in-situ measurements. This clearly shows that the measured values are typically very small compared to the international standards but could be somewhat higher compared to the reduced limits. Based on this observation and the reasonable assumption that the sensitivity of people to Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) is the same everywhere (whole-body), we propose the idea to establish a worldwide reference limit for the general public, thus applicable in all countries, if the ICNIRP considers it appropriate. Research must continue to generate measurement data that demonstrate the levels of exposure to which we are really exposed, and with this, provide arguments to the organizations that established the guidelines, especially the ICNIRP, to evaluate whether the current limits are too much. High and can be modified when considered pertinent. To the best of our knowledge, at no time has the reference level for the general public been exceeded.

A review of recent developments and applications of high-permittivity dielectric shimming in magnetic resonance.

We present a review outlining the basic mechanism, background, recent technical developments, and clinical applications of aqueous dielectric padding in the field of MRI. Originally meant to be a temporary solution, it has gained traction as an effective method for correcting B1 + inhomogeneities due to the unique properties of the calcium titanate and barium titanate perovskites used. Aqueous dielectric pads have used a variety of high-permittivity materials over the years to improve the quality of MRI acquisitions at 1.5 and 3 T and more recently for 7 T neuroimaging applications. The technical development and assessment of these pads have been advanced by an increased use of mathematical modeling and electromagnetic simulations. These tools have allowed for a more complete understanding of the physical interactions between dielectric pads and the RF coil, making testing and safety assessments more accurate. The ease of use and effectiveness that dielectric pads offer have allowed them to become more commonplace in tackling imaging challenges in more clinically focused environments. More recently, they have seen usage not only in anatomical imaging methods but also in specialized metabolic imaging sequences such as GluCEST and NOEMTR . New colossally high-permittivity materials have been proposed; however, practical utilization has been a continued challenge due to unfavorable frequency dependences as well as safety limitations. A new class of metasurfaces has been under development to address the shortcomings of conventional dielectric padding while also providing increased performance in enhancing MRI images.

Headache in the international cohort study of mobile phone use and health (COSMOS) in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

Headache is a common condition with a substantial burden of disease worldwide. Concerns have been raised over the potential impact of long-term mobile phone use on headache due to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs). We explored prospectively the association between mobile phone use at baseline (2009-2012) and headache at follow-up (2015-2018) by analysing pooled data consisting of the Dutch and UK cohorts of the Cohort Study of Mobile Phone Use and Health (COSMOS) (N = 78,437). Frequency of headache, migraine, and information on mobile phone use, including use of hands-free devices and frequency of texting, were self-reported. We collected objective operator data to obtain regression calibrated estimates of voice call duration. In the model mutually adjusted for call-time and text messaging, participants in the high category of call-time showed an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 1.04 (95 % CI: 0.94-1.15), with no clear trend of reporting headache with increasing call-time. However, we found an increased risk of weekly headache (OR = 1.40, 95 % CI: 1.25-1.56) in the high category of text messaging, with a clear increase in reporting headache with increasing texting. Due to the negligible exposure to RF-EMFs from texting, our results suggest that mechanisms other than RF-EMFs are responsible for the increased risk of headache that we found among mobile phone users.